Internal Alchemy: 

Origins and Development

Course Title: Internal Alchemy: Origins and Development

  • Course Code: DAO301
  • Level: Upper-division Undergraduate / Graduate
  • Credits: 3
  • Prerequisites: Introduction to Taoism, Chinese Philosophy, or instructor permission
  • Department: Religious Studies / East Asian Studies / Philosophy


Course Description

This course offers a comprehensive study of Internal Alchemy (Neidan 內丹), a central component of Taoist spiritual practice. It traces its origins from early Taoist cosmology and classical Chinese medicine through its evolution in the Han, Tang, Song, and later dynasties. Students will explore the philosophical, religious, and practical dimensions of Neidan, including its metaphysical foundations, textual sources, lineage transmission, and meditative techniques. Particular emphasis will be placed on primary texts (in translation), historical contexts, and interpretive frameworks within Taoist tradition.


Course Objectives

By the end of this course, students will:

  1. Understand the historical development of Neidan and its roots in Taoist philosophy and practice.
  2. Analyze core Neidan texts and identify key themes, symbols, and cosmological principles.
  3. Examine the relationships between Neidan, Daoist ritual, Chinese medicine, and Confucian/Buddhist influences.
  4. Compare different schools and lineages within the Neidan tradition.
  5. Critically engage with scholarly debates surrounding the interpretation of Internal Alchemy.


Syllabus (Weekly Schedule)

Week 1: Introduction to Taoist Alchemy

  • Overview of Taoism and alchemical traditions
  • Outer vs. Inner Alchemy: Definitions and distinctions
  • Readings: Pregadio, The Taoist Body (Intro); Fabrizio Pregadio, "Daoist Internal Alchemy: An Introduction"

Week 2: Early Cosmological Foundations

  • Yin-Yang, Five Phases (Wu Xing), Qi, Dao
  • Laozi and Zhuangzi's philosophical groundwork
  • Readings: Dao De Jing, Zhuangzi (selected passages)

Week 3: Outer Alchemy and Han Dynasty Context

  • Huang-Lao thought and early Daoist movements
  • Alchemical experimentation and immortality
  • Readings: Campany, To Live As Long As Heaven and Earth (selections)

Week 4: Foundations of Internal Alchemy

  • Transition from external to internal practices
  • Neidan as a response to religious and political shifts
  • Readings: Robinet, Taoist Meditation (Ch. 1–2)

Week 5: The Cantong Qi (The Seal of the Unity of the Three)

  • Cosmological and symbolic structure
  • Daoist metaphysics and language of Neidan
  • Readings: Cantong Qi (Pregadio translation)

Week 6: Tang Dynasty Developments

  • Emergence of ritualized internal alchemy
  • Lu Dongbin and Zhong-Lü texts
  • Readings: The Secret of the Golden Flower (Thomas Cleary or Wilhelm edition)

Week 7: Song Dynasty and the Rise of Neidan Schools

  • Quanzhen vs. Southern Schools
  • Influences from Confucianism and Chan Buddhism
  • Readings: Eskildsen, Asceticism in Early Quanzhen Daoism

Week 8: The Taixi Method and Inner Circulation

  • Microcosmic orbit, breath work, jing-qi-shen refinement
  • Body maps and internal landscape
  • Readings: Komjathy, Daoist Texts in Translation (Neidan practice manuals)

Week 9: Female Alchemy and Gender in Neidan

  • Yin alchemy, reversal of the menstrual cycle
  • Female authors and alchemical symbolism
  • Readings: Despeux, “Women and Alchemy in Daoism”

Week 10: Neidan in Ming and Qing Dynasties

  • Literati alchemists and esoteric commentaries
  • Integration with Confucian self-cultivation
  • Readings: Pregadio, Great Clarity: Daoism and Alchemy in Early China (selections)

Week 11: Comparative Perspectives

  • Parallels with Indian Tantra and Western alchemical traditions
  • Symbolism of the body, transformation, and enlightenment
  • Readings: Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible (selections)

Week 12: Modern Revival and Contemporary Practice

  • Neidan in 20th and 21st centuries: Martial arts, Qigong, and popular culture
  • Living masters and modern interpretations
  • Readings: Livia Kohn, “Daoism in the Modern World”

Week 13: Case Studies and Student Presentations

  • Lineage analysis, practice interpretation, or textual commentary

Week 14: Review and Integration

  • Theoretical models, cosmological integration, embodied practice
  • Final reflections and synthesis

Week 15: Final Exam / Paper Submission


Assessment Methods

  • Class Participation – 15%
  • Midterm Essay (Textual Analysis) – 25%
  • Presentation on Neidan Lineage or Practice – 20%
  • Final Research Paper – 30%
  • Weekly Reading Responses – 10%